Introduction

Sex-related homicides include rape murders, serial murders, and killings that involve anal and oral sodomy and other acts of sexual perversion, as well as sexually oriented interpersonal violence cases. For a more comprehensive and in-depth discussion of sex-related homicides, I recommend Sex-Related Homicide and Death Investigations: Practical and Clinical Perspectives.1

A homicide is classified as "sex-related" when evidence of sexual activity is observed in the crime scene or upon the body of the victim. This includes

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1. The type of or lack of attire on the victim

2. Evidence of seminal fluid on, near, or in the body

3. Evidence of sexual injury and/or sexual mutilation

4. Sexualized positioning of the body

5. Evidence of substitute sexual activity, i.e., fantasy, ritualism, symbolism, and/or masturbation

6. Multiple stabbing or cuttings to the body, including slicing wounds across the abdomen of the victim, throat slashing, and overkill types of injuries, which are considered highly suggestive of a sexual motivation.2

The victims of these crimes are usually females and young children, and the killer a male. However, it is important to note that sex-related homicides involve homosexual as well as heterosexual relationships. (See "Homosexual Homicides," Chapter 15.)

The homicide might have sexual implications even without an overt sex act or observable sexual activity at the crime scene. It is important to note that unlike other murders, the motive or reason for the killing may not always be readily discernable or as "clear-cut" as is presented in a robbery–homicide, a drug-related murder, or an organized crime "hit."

Practically speaking, if the body is that of a female and it is found nude or partially clothed, the investigator should think "sex crime."

The Crime Scene Investigation

The search of the homicide crime scene is the most important phase of the investigation conducted at the scene. It begins with a twofold purpose:

1. The complete documentation of events. Photographs (black-and-white and color) and/or video tape as well as crime scene sketches should be accomplished prior to any other police procedures at the scene.

2. A careful and complete search. A search should be conducted for any forensic materials and other evidence which might provide a clue to the identity of the killer.

Sex-Related Crime Scene Checklist

Physical evidence in the form of seminal fluid must be collected as soon as possible before it is lost or destroyed. Samples can be allowed to air dry naturally or you can use a hair dryer on low speed. Wet samples can be drawn into an eyedropper and should be placed in a sterile test tube. Dry stains will have a stiff "starchy" texture. If the stain is on clothing, submit the entire article, being careful not to break or contaminate the stained area. Consider DNA testing technique requirements.

Blood (wet) should be collected using an eyedropper and transferred to a sterile container. The blood can be put into a test tube with EDTA, an anticoagulant, and refrigerated. Small amounts can be collected using 100% cotton swab, #8 cotton thread, or a gauze pad. Allow the swab to air dry and place it in a sterile container. Consider DNA testing techniques.

Blood stain, spittle, and hair (including pubic combings) should be obtained at the scene, properly packaged, and forwarded to lab. Consider DNA testing techniques. Trace evidence found on the victim and/or upon the victim's clothing should be collected. Search for hair, fibers, and other microscopic evidence. Use forceps, a vacuum cleaner fitted with an in-line canister attachment in the hose, or tape. Tape and forceps are the best methods so as not to contaminate samples.

Bruises and marks on the victim, including the presence of sadistic injuries, should be noted and documented in the investigative notes.

Urine or feces may be left at the scene by the assailant. This evidence should be recorded and collected. Urine can be removed by eyedropper or gauze. Place in a sterile test tube or other container. If they are on clothing, submit the entire article. DNA testing can be performed on urine.

Fingernail scrapings should be obtained for an analysis of any blood, skin, or hair from the perpetrator. Consider DNA testing technique.

Confer with the medical examiner and assure that specimens are taken from the body (e.g., hair from various areas of the body). In addition, vaginal washings, as well as anal, nasal, and oral swabs, should be requested for serological evaluation and examination. Consider DNA testing techniques.

Examine the scene for evidence of a struggle. The presence of torn clothing, missing buttons, ripped textiles, marks on the ground or floor, and blood splatters must all be photographed, documented, and collected as evidence.

Homicides involving mutilation may yield clues such as style of attack, the type of weapon used, the amount and location of mutilation, the position of the body. These items should be recorded. (See Chapter 21, "Investigative Assessment: Criminal Personality Profiling.")

If a suspect has been taken into custody, his or her clothing should be taken and an examination conducted for any physical evidence. Examine for hairs and fibers.

Each piece of evidence should be packaged in a separate container in order to prevent cross-contamination.

The suspect's body should be examined for any fingernail scratches, bite marks, or other indications of a violent struggle.

Hair and blood samples should be obtained. (Ensure that any such samples are obtained legally.)

The body should be examined for the presence of bite-mark evidence. Collect and record:

Saliva washing of the bite-mark area for blood grouping. Use 100% cotton dampened in distilled water. Important: Obtain a control sample from another area of the body.

Photograph the bite mark. Obtain black-and-white and color photos. Use a rule of measure and obtain an anatomical landmark.

Casting should be done if possible. Use dental materials.

(For further information on collection of evidence and DNA testing see Chapter 16, "Forensic Application of DNA Analysis" and Chapter 17, "Collection of Evidence.")

Method for Diagnosing Abrasions, Lacerations, and Other Skin Disruptions in the Perineum and Perianal Areas

According to Dr. Frederick T. Zugibe, chief medical examiner, Rockland County, New York, an excellent procedure in determining sexual assault injuries can be visualized by the application of Toluidine Blue in 0.01% solution and/or Methylene Blue or Azure.3

Toluidine stains ground substance or mucopolysaccharides, which are found in abrasions as well as other skin injuries. The intact skin will not stain but injured skin will be visualized with the application of Toluidine Blue and/or Methylene Blue or Azure. This test is extremely effective in child sexual abuse cases. It can also be administered by doctors in hospital emergency rooms who treat live victims of sexual assault to document the presence of mucopolysaccharides. A simple color Polaroid taken before and after the application produces excellent documentation of sexual abuse, which can be used in trial.

Toluidine Blue is applied with cotton or gauze to the area of suspected trauma. The excess is wiped off with a K-Y jelly or similar substance. The stain will remain in the area of trauma.

In sex-related homicide cases, basic evidence collection procedures acquire an increased importance. Human behavior patterns and psychosexual activities, not generally amenable to ordinary collection techniques, become additional factors to consider in determining the reason and motive for the killing. Practical experience in homicide investigation and an understanding of human behavior patterns and human sexuality are important prerequisites in analyzing these types of cases.

Human Sexuality and Sexual Deviance

The three components of the human sex drive are biological (instinctive), physiological (functional), and emotional (mental). The emotional or mental component

Figure 14.1 BONDAGE AS FANTASY — CORDOPHILIA. This bondage scenario depicts a person as a willing participant in a bondage game. (From the author's files.)

Figure 14.2 BONDAGE AS REALITY — SADISTIC MURDER. The photo depicts the reality of S&M bondage. After raping this victim, the offender "decorated" her in duct tape to fulfill a sadistic fantasy. The woman was bound with her arms above her head in an extremely vulnerable position. He plunged a knife into her chest and then eviscerated her. (Courtesy of Detective Scott Mummert, Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, Police Department.)

is the manifestation of the culmination of our psychosexual development. According to experts, the psychosexual or emotional component is the strongest of the three, accounting for approximately 70% of the human sex drive.

Emotions are controlled by the mind, so it follows that "the mind controls the act." The mind determines what is and what is not sexually arousing to an individual.

Essentially, our human sexuality is established during our psychosexual development through conditioning and experience, which involve nature and nurture. Sexual behaviors are learned behaviors in which the individual develops a perception of what is sexually satisfying and what is socially appropriate within the context of his or her environment.

Clinically speaking, there is a behavioral distinctiveness in human sexuality. This unique aspect of our arousal and response system accounts for why individuals differ in their sexual behaviors and show selectivity in choosing their mates or

Figure 14.3 SEXUAL PARAPHERNALIA. These devices were recovered in a sex-related homicide case. (Courtesy of Dr. Dominick J. DiMaio, former chief medical examiner, City of New York.)

sexual partners. Human sexuality is no longer simply instinctive, but rather is based upon learned patterns of attraction, activity, and fulfillment. Our sexual arousal and response system is affected by hormones, the brain's capacity to recall pleasurable experiences, fantasies, emotions, various sensory processes, and the level of intimacy between two people.

Sex is also a sensory act, involving the five senses of touch, sight, sound, smell, and taste. Each of our five senses is employed to a greater or lesser degree in our sexuality. For example, the sight of a scantily clothed woman might be an arousal factor for a man, or the sense of touch as it relates to a tender caress might be the stimulus that serves as an arousal factor for a woman. These are perfectly appropriate responses as they relate to human sexuality because they are viewed as acceptable behaviors. However, persons who are inhibited sexually may develop unconventional forms of sexual expression. The person who becomes aroused looking at the scantily clad woman might become obsessed with this sensory "turnon." A deviance might then begin to emerge in a sexual behavior that becomes compulsive, such as in the paraphilia voyeurism.

Sexual behaviors are classified as acceptable or unacceptable. This determination is based upon statistical, cultural, religious, and subjective considerations. The subjective determination of what is sexually pleasing to the individual could be and many times is in conflict with the acceptable standards determined by the majority and also based on cultural considerations or religious influence. This does not prevent the individual from expressing his or her sexual needs. According to Coleman et al., "The sex drive is normally sufficiently powerful enough to override all but the most severe social sanctions. Thus we see variant sexual needs frequently erupting into variant sexual behaviors."4

These variations are divided into two groupings. The distinction between the categories is based on social effect. Does the activity infringe on the public welfare? Or is the activity a victimless sexual variant?

We in law enforcement are often called upon to investigate what are described as nuisance violations or sexual deviations. This can be an important consideration when analyzing "What took place?" in a sex-related crime scene. It also is the basis for an important investigative concept, which we in homicide investigation refer to as the "signature aspect" of the offender. (See "Criminal Personality Profiling — The Signature Aspect in Criminal Investigation" in Chapter 21.)

According to Dr. John Money,5 there is a kind of lovemap depicting an idealized lover, love scene, and a program of erotic activities. These are related to the natural human development of the individual and are influenced by biological aspects as well as the environment: nature and nurture. Sexual deviation occurs when these "lovemap" patterns become derailed. Child molesters, rapists, deviant murderers, and others with peculiar erotic interests are an example of this phenomenon. The formulation of sexual deviance can usually be traced to aberrant erotic development. For example, strict antisexual upbringing, sexual abuse of a child between the ages of 5 and 8 by the primary caregiver, overexposure to sexually stimulating behaviors, and/or inappropriate and pathological family dynamics.

According to Coleman et al., the sexual deviations are described as "acts which involve nonconsent or assault and those acts which can be described as problematic from the standpoint of the welfare of society." The sexual deviations are4

Voyeurism Exhibitionism Pedophilia

Sexual sadism Incest and rape Masochism

In DSM III (1980), it is stated that "the term paraphilia is preferable because it correctly emphasizes that the deviation (para) is in that to which the individual is attracted."6 In DSM-III-R (1987), paraphilias were also described using the deviation (para) and attraction (philia) explanation.7 However, in DSM-IV, published in 1994, the text specifically disregards the "attraction to deviance" explanation.

Presently, in this new "kinder and gentler" and overly tolerant society, many sexual perversions heretofore considered shameful and despicable are now looked upon as legitimate expressions of one's sexuality. According to some of the alleged "experts," there is no "right or wrong" anymore. Instead, we hear the words "preference" and "choice." We do not hear about responsibility.

Sexual behaviors are classified as acceptable or unacceptable. This determination is based upon statistical, cultural, religious, and subjective considerations. The subjective determination of what is sexually pleasing to the individual could be and many times is in conflict with the acceptable standards determined by the majority, which is statistical, cultural considerations, or religious influence. In law enforce-

Figure 14.4 TRANSVESTIC FETISHISM. A "john" who thought that he had picked up a female prostitute killed this subject, who was a transvestite, when he realized he was with a man. (Courtesy of Dr. Dominick J. DiMaio, former chief medical examiner, City of New York.) ment, we have a duty and responsibility to enforce the statutes as they are written. The clinical community may choose to ignore or minimize the impact of the paraphilias. In law enforcement, we view the paraphilias differently.

In Practical Homicide Investigation, I prefer the analogy that paraphilias are indeed an attraction to deviance, and in my experience, I have found that certain paraphilias clearly indicate the potential of future sexual misconduct.

"The paraphilias are a group of persistent sexual arousal patterns in which unusual objects, rituals, or situations are required for full sexual satisfaction to occur."4 According to the DSM-IV, there are nine paraphilias. I will list them here with a brief definition. However, for further information, see the Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders IV and Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life, 7th edition.4

1. Exhibitionism (302.4): Exposing the genitals to an unsuspecting stranger for the purpose of obtaining sexual excitement

Figure 14.5 KLISMAPHILIA. A sexual attraction to the giving or receiving of enemas. (From the author's files.)

2. Fetishism (302.81): Use of nonliving objects for sexual arousal (female undergarments, panties, shoes, etc.)

3. Frotteurism (302.89): A sexual attraction to rubbing against the genitalia or body of another

4. Pedophilia (302.2): Engaging in sexual activity with prepubertal children

5. Sexual masochism (302.83): Getting pleasure from being humiliated, bound, beaten, or otherwise made to suffer for sexual arousal (considered a chronic disorder)

6. Sexual sadism (302.84): The infliction of physical or psychological pain on another person in order to achieve sexual excitement (considered a chronic and progressive disorder)

7. Transvestic fetishism (302.3): Cross-dressing by a heterosexual male for sexual excitement (ranges from solitary wearing of female clothes to extensive involvement in a transvestite subculture)

8. Voyeurism (302.82): Repetitive looking at unsuspecting people who are naked, in the act of disrobing, or engaging in sexual activity (the Peeping

Tom)

Figure 14.6 SEXUAL MASOCHISM. This subject engaged in penis infibulation as part of his masochistic inclinations. (From the author's files.)

Figure 14.7 SEXUAL SADISM AS A FANTASY. This photo was altered by a subject who fantasized about what he would like to do to a woman. The device was glued onto a photograph complete with blood drippings and shadow. (From the author's files.)

Figure 14.8 SEXUAL SADISM AS REALITY. This photo illustrates the dynamics of the paraphilia of partialism. The murderer removed the victim's breast and then placed it next to his second victim's body for shock value. (Courtesy of Chief Criminal Deputy Robin Wagg, Douglas County, Washington, Sheriff's Department.)

9. Paraphilia not otherwise specified: This category is included for coding paraphilias that do not meet the criteria for any of the specific categories: Telephone scatolgia: A sexual attraction to making obscene telephone calls (lewdness)

Necrophilia: A sexual attraction to dead bodies; having intercourse with a dead body

Partialism: An exclusive focus on a part of the human body, a breast, leg, penis, etc.

Zoophilia: Use of animals for sexual arousal (includes intercourse with animals as well as training the animal to lick or rub the human partner)

Coprophilia: A sexual attraction to feces

Klismaphilia: A sexual attraction to the giving or receiving of enemas

Urophilia: A sexual attraction to urine

Mysophilia: A sexual attraction to filth8

Determining Motivation

An extremely important aspect of homicide investigation is the determination of the motive for the killing. In the sex-related homicide, there are a number of possibilities to consider. Sex-related homicides include rape–murders, serial murders, killings involving anal and oral sodomy and other acts of sexual perversion, and interpersonal violence scenarios.

No one acts without motivation. According to the late James A. Brussel, M.D., a criminal psychiatrist,

...the motivations behind the acts of a madman possess their own logic. The psychotic murderer does not act wholly irrationally. There is a method to his madness: there is a logic, a rationale, hidden behind what he does and how he does it, however wildly bizarre and completely without reason it appears to be....9

The investigative challenge is to discover this perverse or seemingly irrational logic and then apply this information to the case.

A careful search should always be conducted at the crime scene and within the surrounding area for evidence of sexual activity. This includes the presence of sexual assault activity as well as substitute and paraphiliac behaviors. This evidence may be seminal fluid in the vagina, mouth, nasal area, or rectum. Semen and other evidence may be discovered outside the body or upon the clothing. Pornographic books, videos, magazines, and/or photographs may be found at the crime scene. The photographs may depict the victim involved in sexual activity. Writings or messages may be left by the offender at the crime scene and/or upon the body of the deceased. In any event, these factors are important in determining the type of sexual activity that may have taken place.

Figure 14.9 CRIME SCENE — SEX-RELATED HOMICIDE? This is a crime scene photograph of a sex-related homicide. The first question is "What took place?" Is this a rape–murder or an interpersonal violence scenario? (From the author's files.)

Figure 14.10 RAPE–MURDER? SEXUAL PERVERSION? This victim of a suicide was sexually assaulted 12 hours after death. At first viewing, one can see how this scenario might be mistaken for a rape–murder. (Courtesy of Detective Early McKee, University of Utah Police Department.)

Human behavior, although unpredictable, is often repetitive. Research has indicated that certain actions engaged in at the homicide crime scene by certain types of personalities will be repeated in other homicide investigations. The homicide detective who has enhanced his experience with a comprehension of the psychodynamics of human behavior will be able to develop a base of knowledge that can be applied to the review of similar cases.

An investigator should ask certain preliminary questions when examining a crime scene: "What took place?" "Why did it occur?" "Who could have done it?"

The reason and motivation for the crime are an extremely important consideration in establishing the investigative direction. Was the murder the result of a lover's quarrel? Is the case attributed to interpersonal violence? Does it appear the victim was killed during a rape or sodomy attempt? Is the killing sexually oriented? Is there a psychotic motive, which sometimes appears to be motiveless or bizarre? Is the homicide the work of a sexual psychopath, with sadistic or impulsive implications? Each of these scenarios suggests a specific course of action.

However, in sex-related homicide investigations, the motivation behind the killing may not be immediately ascertained. Even when you do believe that you have determined the motive, my experience suggests exercising caution.

Significance of Fantasy in Sex-Related Incidents

All human sexual activities are initiated through fantasies, which are mental images usually involving some fulfilled or unfulfilled desire. Fantasy plays a major role in

(A) (B)

Figure 14.13 SEX-RELATED HOMICIDE INVOLVING BIZARRE ACTIVITIES. Anthropophagy and postmortem mutilation of body. These photographs show the partially clad body of an eviscerated female. The victim was hit in the head with a baseball bat. Her throat was cut, and there are multiple cuttings to her breasts and legs. The offender engaged in sadistic activities with the victim's body and placed a soda bottle in the abdominal cavity. Evidence in the scene also indicated that the offender had drunk the victim's blood. A bloody drinking glass with the offender's lip prints was found at the scene. (From the author's files.)

everyone's sexual behavior. It is the drive factor for sexual expression. Sexual fantasies normally consist of imaginings and/or a series of mental images that are sexually stimulating. The contrast of these "normal" fantasies would be the aberrant development of bizarre mental images involving grotesque unnatural distortions of sexual imagery.

For the sexual predator:

1. The underlying stimulus often is expressed through sexual aggression, domination, power, and control.

2. Sexual fantasies constructed around such themes begin to develop shortly after puberty.

3. The individual becomes aroused with thoughts and fantasies of sexual aggression.

4. Clinically speaking, the subject has developed a paraphilic lovemap5 where lust is attached to fantasies and practices that are socially forbidden, disapproved, ridiculed or penalized.

This paraphilic lovemap is then reinforced through repetition illustrated by the use of sadistic pornography and fantasy stories featuring sexual sadism. "Acting out" these themes with consenting partners coupled with masturbatory activities eventually formulates the subject's "template" or what we refer to in law enforcement as the "signature" of the offender.

Detectives involved in the investigation of sex-related homicides and deaths should be aware of the role of fantasy in sex-related homicides and accidental deaths to sexual asphyxia. Fantasy fuels the mental and emotional processes underlying human behavior and is revealed in the crime scene or accidental death event.1

Sexual sadists rely heavily on fantasy and ritual to obtain sexual satisfaction. There is an element of compulsivity as well as an obsession on the part of the sexual sadist to keep trophies and recordings of the event. Photographs of the victims play a significant part in their rituals as well as their ability to recall their sadistic acts. Therefore, I recommend that any search warrant applications in these types of cases should certainly reference photographs as well as any records, scripts, letters, maps, diaries, drawings, audiotapes, videotapes, and newspaper reports of the crimes as possible evidence to be seized.

I remember reviewing an investigation in which the partially clad body of a 28year-old college coed had been found on campus of a large university. Her pants and panties had been removed and her legs had been spread apart. Her blouse had been pushed up to reveal her breasts. The cause of death was not readily apparent at the scene. However, it was ascertained that there had been sexual activity at the crime scene and the medical examination confirmed the presence of semen in the girl's vagina. The motive in this case was determined to be a rape–homicide. However, upon further investigation, it was discovered that the young woman, who was a pharmaceutical student at the university, had actually committed suicide the evening before. A suicide note was found in her dorm explaining that she was extremely depressed and had taken an overdose of prescription drugs. The medicolegal autopsy confirmed that her death was related to an overdose of drugs.

Eventually, the homicide inquiry revealed that the groundskeeper, who had initially reported finding the body, was responsible for the sexual act. He confessed to police that he had come across the body and experienced a "sexual urge." The girl's body, which had been lying there for some 12 hours, was in rigor. He broke the rigor to loosen her legs and then removed her clothing. He then engaged in an act of necrophilia. What had appeared to be a rape–homicide was actually a suicide with an act of sexual deviance committed upon the body after death.10

Remember: Things are not always what they appear to be.

The identification of the victim is a crucial consideration in determining motivation. An intensive investigation into the victim's background, lifestyle, and associations many times will reveal a possible motive. An examination of any relationships, acquaintances, and risk factors may provide a clue to the "Who could have done it?" scenario. For example, With whom does the victim live? Who was with the victim last? Does it appear that the victim knew his or her assailant? What is the victim's current social status? Why was this particular victim selected? Does the crime appear to be a "stranger-homicide"? Was the deceased in a high-risk occupation (call girl or prostitute)? Was the victim a runaway or hitchhiker? Was the victim a late-hours worker, e.g., waitress or service worker, who had to travel alone at night? What method of transportation did the victim utilize? What route did the victim travel? Were there any recent sexual incidents in the area, such as voyeurism (Peeping Tom cases) or fetish burglaries? Are there any rape or sexual assault patterns?

One of the most significant factors to consider in death investigation is victimology. In sex-related events, victimology becomes paramount in the assessment and analysis of "Who was the victim and what was going on in his or her life at the time of the event?" (See "Victimology" in Chapter 1.)

I remember reviewing and critiquing a serial murder case in which an offender had killed ten young women over a period of 2 years. In the first case, authorities had little or no information except that the deceased was a drug user and prostitute. The second case involved a missing person, who was not found until the killer was apprehended. However, the next two cases, which came in about 4 months apart, were strikingly similar. Both young women had been killed in their respective apartments and there were no signs of forced entry, suggesting they might have known their assailant. In both of these cases, the investigators failed to interview friends and coworkers of the two women. Had the detectives conducted this very basic inquiry, they would have become aware that the two cases were related and that both young women had worked at the same fast-food restaurant where the offender had made their acquaintance. This failure to conduct basic investigative inquiry proved to be devastating to an entire community as six additional young women were found under similar circumstances over the next year. Ultimately, a serial murderer was apprehended, but not before ten women had become victims in this series of sex-related attacks.10

Any number of questions can be asked and answered depending upon the circumstances and/or scenario of the crime scene. Consequently, an important factor in the proper formulation of a hypothesis will be the experience and knowledge of the investigator assigned to the case.

Examining a crime scene with the purpose of identifying and interpreting certain items that may serve as clues to the type of personality is an excellent technique. (See Chapter 21, "Investigative Assessment: Criminal Personality Profiling.") There are common denominators between the psychological make-up of the criminal and the psychological clues the crime scene reveals.

Research by the FBI's Behavioral Science Unit into sex-related homicides has disclosed a remarkable consistency in the type of person who commits certain acts. Although there is a wide range of differences among offenders who commit similar offenses, these offenders also share similarities and common traits.

Organized and Disorganized Offenders

The organized and disorganized dichotomy devised by the FBI's Behavioral Science Unit is a description of criminal offender typologies. The information presented here as it relates to the phenomena of organized and disorganized offenders is based upon the studies and research of the Behavioral Science Unit, personal interviews with retired Supervisory Special Agent Robert K. Ressler and others involved in the project, and interaction with colleagues across the United States who are homicide experts, as well as my experience as a homicide investigator, instructor, consultant, and expert in the field of homicide investigation.

What Is the Motive?

Psychotic Psychopathic

Motiveless Sadistic

Bizarre Impulsive

Disorganized Organized

The Organized Offender

The clinical definition of the elements making up an organized offender can be found in DSM-IV under the category Antisocial Personality Disorder. Antisocial personality is often referred to as psychopathic or sociopathic behavior. Today, the clinical community has come to realize the significance of psychopathy as it relates to criminal behavior. As far as I am concerned, the word psychopath "fits" the law enforcement term of organized "like a glove."

The organized offender is usually above average in intelligence. He is methodical and cunning. His crime is well thought out and carefully planned. He is likely to own a car, which is in good condition. The crime is usually committed out of his area of residence or work. He is mobile and travels many more miles than the average person. Fantasy and ritual are important to the organized personality type. He selects a victim whom he considers the "right" type — someone he can control (through manipulation or strength), usually a stranger. Most of his victims will share some common traits.

This offender is considered socially adept. He uses his verbal skills to manipulate his victims and gain control over them until he has them within his "comfort zone." He is fully cognizant of the criminality of his act and takes pride in his ability to thwart the police investigation. He is likely to follow news reports of the event and will often take a "souvenir" from his victim as a reminder; this is sometimes used to relive the event or continue with the fantasy. (The souvenir is referred to as a "trophy" when describing this particular action by the organized offender.) He is excited by the cruelty of the act and may engage in torturing the victim. Sexual control of the victim plays an important part in this scenario. He avoids leaving evidence behind and usually brings his own weapon. He is aware of police procedures. The body is often removed from the crime scene. He may do this to taunt the police or to prevent its discovery by transporting it to a location where it will be well hidden. (See Chapter 21 for a more in-depth profile of the organized offender.)

The Disorganized Offender

The clinical definition of the elements making up a disorganized offender is found in such diagnoses as the psychotic disorders, i.e., the schizophrenias, which are characterized by gross distortions of reality involving delusions and hallucinations, and paranoia, which may or may not affect the personality, as well as paranoid schizophrenics, who are marked by acute personality fragmentation. In addition, individuals who are not psychotic may experience psychotic episodes. A psychotic episode, which is referred to as brief psychotic disorder in the DSM-IV,8 relates to a temporary condition brought on shortly after or in response to an extreme stressor. The individual will typically experience emotional turmoil or overwhelming confusion.

Under certain conditions, an inadequate individual experiencing intense sadistic sexual fantasies may suddenly "act out" these fantasies on a victim of opportunity. The crime scene would be disorganized, and his actions and behavior could be viewed as psychotic.

The disorganized offender is usually of below average intelligence. He is generally a loner, who usually is not married and lives alone or with a relative in close proximity to the crime scene. He experiences difficulty in negotiating interpersonal relationships and is described as socially inadequate.

This offender acts impulsively under stress and will usually select a victim from his geographic area. In most instances, this type of offender will not own a vehicle, but will have access to one. Generally, he will avoid people. He is described as sexually incompetent without any meaningful sexual relationships. He uses a "blitz" style of attack, which catches the victim off guard. This spontaneous action in which the offender suddenly "acts out" his fantasy does not allow for a conscious plan or even a thought of being detected. This is why the crime scene will be disorganized. In homicide investigation, we call these events a clustered crime scene.

A clustered crime scene involves a situation where most of the activities take place at one location: the confrontation, the attack, the assault and sexual activity, etc.

The disorganized offender usually depersonalizes his victim by facial destruction or overkill types of wounds. Any sexually sadistic acts are performed postmortem. Mutilation to the genitalia, rectum, breasts of females, neck, throat, and buttocks is performed because these parts of the body contain a strong sexual significance to him. (See Chapter 21 for an in-depth profile of the disorganized offender.)

According to Ressler et al., "...there are significant differences between the organized and disorganized offender. However, there are no situations where the organized and disorganized offenders are mutually exclusive. That is, both types of murderers are capable of all types of behavior."11

Figure 14.14 RAPE HOMICIDE CRIME SCENE. This is the victim of a rape–homicide that occurred in an unoccupied apartment within a building in the South Bronx. The victim was raped and sodomized by the killer, who had forced her into this location after tricking her into going into the building. She was a classic "victim of opportunity" who just happened to be at the wrong place at the wrong time. (From the author's files.)

Classifications

In my opinion as an expert in the sphere of homicide investigation, sex-related homicides can be classified into four distinct categories based upon frequency of occurrence:

1. Interpersonal violence-oriented disputes and assaults

2. Rape- and/or sodomy-oriented assault

3. Deviant-oriented assault, commonly referred to as a lust psychotic killing

(in these situations the motive for the murder is not readily discernible)

4. The serial murder

My opinion of the FBI classification of crime as found in the Crime Classification Manual (CCM)23 is that it does not facilitate or assist in the solving of criminal offenses. These CCM classifications serve no purpose, other than to allow alleged "experts" to testify to the data and statistical information compiled in a research project. In fact, the CCM not only confuses the investigative process, but also actually allows for an interpretation of events that may or may not conform to state, county, and local government legislation as it applies to the specific crime.

I believe that the FBI attempted to produce the equivalent of a DSM-IV type of publication, which is fine for research and theoretical analysis of criminal events in the area of clinical research but lacks the "practical application" necessary in the investigative practice.

Figure 14.15 RAPE-HOMICIDE CRIME SCENE — DEPERSONALIZATION. This young woman was raped and murdered by an organized offender. The woman, who had been bound for the purposes of sexual assault, was under the control of this killer for a number of hours. The covering of the face and/or turning over of the body is referred to as depersonalization. (Courtesy of Detective Sergeant [retired] Robert L. Bittle, Cumberland County Sheriff's Department, North Carolina.)

In the "real world" of death investigation, we do not need to complicate the investigative process by constructing theoretical definitions and subclassifications for computer analysis. I believe in keeping things simple. I have instructed, proposed, and recommended that the criminal investigator approach sex-related death investigations by considering the practical statistical significance of the four classifications of sex-related homicides as specified at the beginning of this section.

Interpersonal Violence-Oriented Disputes and Assaults

The most common type of sex-related homicide originates from interpersonal violence. "Sexual domestic disputes" involve husbands and wives, men and women, boyfriends and girlfriends, boyfriends and boyfriends, girlfriends and girlfriends, and even occasionally siblings. They may also involve third-party relationships,

Figure 14.16 RAPE–HOMICIDE CRIME SCENE — PREVENTING IDENTIFCATION. The offender engaged in multiple breast assault by knife and assured the victim's death by cutting her throat. The police investigation indicated that the victim could have identified her assailant. The offender killed her to prevent identification. He also killed two of her children, who could have identified him. (Courtesy of Detective Sergeant [retired] Robert L. Bittle, Cumberland County Sheriff's Department, North Carolina.)

such as "love triangles," former husbands and/or wives, and jilted lovers. In some instances, the death may not appear to be sexually motivated. However, upon an examination into the background and relationships of the victim, a new possibility soon presents itself to the authorities.

Practically speaking, whenever a man reports the sudden death of his wife, girlfriend, lover, or associate or makes a report of a missing person for one of those relationships, a smart homicide cop should immediately consider him a possible suspect until the facts prove otherwise. Who kills women in our society? Men. I base this conclusion on statistics. In fact, experienced homicide cops usually take a good hard look at the husband, lover, or boyfriend to scrutinize their behaviors as they report the event. What do think that the O.J. Simpson case was all about? A jury swayed with the racial shenanigans orchestrated by the defense acquitted Simpson. However, in the civil trial where all of the evidence was presented to the fact finders, O.J. Simpson was found liable for the death of his former wife, Nicole Brown, as well as for the death of Ronald Goldman.

I remember a case in which a 36-year-old female executive was found shot to death "execution style." She had been shot three times in the head at close range and her body was left in her automobile, which was found parked under the George Washington Bridge. The police investigation revealed that the victim had an ongoing lesbian relationship with a 31-year-old female bartender. Detectives ascertained that the deceased had become embroiled in an argument with her lesbian girlfriend over another woman. The victim had met this woman at an East Side "singles" bar.

When the "other woman" arrived, the argument began and the three women ended up leaving the bar together The deceased drove the auto with her new "friend" sitting in the front seat and her lesbian lover sitting in the rear seat. The argument continued as they drove. During the argument, the jealous lover shot her friend in the head from the back seat. The woman passenger fled the scene as the shooter exited the back of the vehicle and got behind the wheel of the auto. She then drove the victim's car and body to the location of discovery. The "witness–passenger" eventually came forward and police arrested the jealous lover, who was hiding out at another woman's Manhattan apartment. Initially, this case did not appear to be a sex-related homicide.10

The motive in this category of slayings is most often based upon elements of rage, hate, anger, jealously, or revenge. The psychological dynamics involved in such violent interpersonal disputes and assaults often presents scenarios which involve violent actions and statements such as, "If I can't have you, then nobody will have you." This is most common in sexual domestic dispute cases. The woman petitions the court for an order of protection. The court order directs the man to stay away from the petitioner and refrain from any further harassment. The man becomes enraged with this attempt by the woman to break the relationship. This often culminates in a violent homicidal episode in which sexual aggression is evident in the crime scene. An estimated 1432 females were killed by intimates in 1992, according to the FBI's Crime in the U.S. Female victims represented 70% of the intimate murder victims.12 Currently, statistics indicate that most women who are murdered in the United States are killed by former husbands, lovers, and friends.13

Murder serves as the ultimate form of sexual revenge for certain abusive types of personalities. That is why I classify interpersonal violence as the most prevalent form of sex-related murder.

I remember investigating a case in which the nude body of an apparent rape victim was found in a city park. Initially, it was believed that the victim had been raped at an undisclosed location, shot to death, and then transported to the park where the body was dumped. However, upon identification of the victim, it was ascertained that she had been missing from the previous day. Investigation revealed that she had been abducted by her estranged husband. He had kept her captive in his auto, where she was repeatedly raped and subsequently killed when she refused to reconcile with him.10

In some domestic dispute cases, especially those involving "crack," which is a concentrated form of cocaine, the crime may appear to be based upon some sort of psychotic episode. The body of a nude woman was found in her neatly furnished apartment. She had been stabbed seven times in the back, chest, and neck, and there was evidence that she had been sexually assaulted. Investigation revealed that her boyfriend, a 24-year-old ex-Marine, had smoked six vials of crack earlier in the day. The suspect, who worked for a Long Island electronics firm, was reportedly a good employee. He did not have any criminal history and according to family members had apparently been happy in his relationship with the woman. Yet, while under the influence of the crack, he had sexually assaulted her and stabbed her to death with a 9-inch carving knife.10

An enraged lover or spouse who is acting under extreme emotional circumstances is capable of anything. I recall a number of cases in which offenders attempted to dispose of their wives and girlfriends through dismemberment. Initially, the police are confronted with a complete mystery and some unidentified body parts. However, once the identity is ascertained, the investigation usually leads to a relative or friend and an interpersonal violence scenario.

There may be an attempt to destroy the victim by depersonalizing the body. Facial destruction, multiple cuttings and stabbing, sexual assault, overkill, and even postmortem attack may be present.

I remember supervising the investigation of a case which appeared to have been committed by a lust murderer or a psychotic killer. The partially clad body of a 22year-old black female was discovered in her apartment. She had been savagely beaten on the head with a baseball bat and her throat had been slashed. Next to the body was a bloodstained drinking glass. I observed a lip print in blood upon the rim of the glass, suggesting that the glass had been used to drink blood. On the coffee table in the living room were a number of kitchen knives, which had been used to slice the victim's body. All the utensils were lined up on the coffee table like an operating room in a hospital. The victim had been eviscerated and a large soda bottle had been thrust into her abdominal cavity. Her intestines could be observed inside the clear plastic bottle. There were a number of postmortem slicings to her breasts and chest. In addition, the killer had also carved diagonal wounds into both of the victim's legs. This murder was actually committed in a fit of rage by the victim's live-in boyfriend.10

It is important to note that the motivation in an interpersonal violence-oriented dispute may be obscured by a clever offender. "Staging" the crime scene or changing some of the elements in the scene might mask the motivation. Originally, what appeared to be a rape or lust murder or the work of a sexual psychopath can often turn out to be based on interpersonal violence.

Rape- and/or Sodomy-Oriented Assault

In this category of sex-related homicide, the offender's primary intent is to rape and/or sodomize the victim. The offense may be heterosexual or homosexual depending on the circumstances of the crime. These homicides occur under the following circumstances:

1. The assailant has used excessive force in overcoming the resistance of the victim and/or furthering the sexual assault.

2. The death is intentional because the victim knows the assailant, or the assailant kills to prevent the victim from identifying him.

These cases are extremely brutal, and death usually results from the assailant's overcoming the resistance of the victim to the rape, sodomy, or homosexual assault. The victim may be choked or strangled into submission, or the mouth and nose may be held tightly in order to stifle the victim's screams, thereby causing asphyxia. Blunt force injuries may be present when the killer has attempted to beat the victim into submission. In addition to the brutality of the attack, a victim may also die of shock or other trauma. This is especially evident in young children or older persons.

The "Murder at the Met" case in New York City was a classic rape–homicide. In this case, a young violinist, who was performing at the Metropolitan Opera House, was attacked and killed by a stagehand. The young woman was walking through one of the many hallways backstage when she was spotted by a stagehand who had been drinking. He followed her to an elevator, forced her to accompany him into a stairwell, and attempted to rape her. He then brought her up to the roof, where he bound and gagged her. He returned a short time later when he heard her making noise as she struggled to break free. He then pushed her from the roof into a ventilating shaft where she was crushed to death in the fall. The offender had killed the victim to prevent her from identifying him.

In some cases, the offender may actually attempt to mislead the authorities by staging the crime scene to make it appear to be something other than a sex crime. For instance, I remember a case where the police were requested to respond to a possible suicide. When they arrived, EMS personnel were attempting to revive a partially clothed female. The EMS personnel advised the officers that when they arrived they observed the unconscious female with a ligature around her neck. Her body was partially suspended by this ligature, which was affixed to some molding. However, upon closer examination of the death scene, the officers noticed signs of a struggle. The officers noticed that the victim's blouse had been ripped open. They also observed some buttons on the floor along with a broken wristwatch, which belonged to the deceased. In addition, a closer examination of the victim's neck revealed concentric fingernail marks, which would be consistent with a manual strangulation. The officers immediately initiated basic crime scene procedures and notified detectives. As a result, additional evidence was located and a proper crime scene investigation conducted.

Sexual assaults by strangers are predatory in nature and therefore the selection of victims is usually a planned affair with the offender engaging in stalking activity as he considers the most appropriate circumstance to capture his victim. The exception would be the opportunity rapist who entered a premises to commit a burglary and/or encounters a potential victim during a robbery and commits the rape secondarily to the original crime. The rapist, who by the nature of the crime is a potential killer, selects his prey based on her vulnerability. The serial rapist incorporates his past rape experience with each new event and has an acute perception of his potential victim. In my opinion, the rapist also has a high level of survival instincts that preclude him from taking any chances of getting caught. This translates to killing his victim rather than risking apprehension and that is why there are more serial killers today than previously.

Investigative Strategy

The usual intent of the offender in sexual assault is to rape and/or sodomize. The offender in this category generally does not receive any sexual satisfaction from the murder. Therefore, as a practical matter, the police are dealing with a rapist who has killed and not a murderer who rapes.

Investigatively speaking, it has been my experience that a rape–murder is usually preceded by other sexual offenses including rapes and/or sodomies where the victim has not been killed. The investigative approach should be first to ascertain whether other cases involving a similar modus operandi have taken place in the jurisdiction. This can then be expanded to include other jurisdictions within the immediate area. This avenue of inquiry can then be expanded to research records for similar offenses committed in the past by persons who have since been released.

I recommend that the investigators contact parole officers regarding any recently released sex offenders. Request their assistance in reviewing their parolee's modus operandi and "signatures." Many times the underlying sexual aspect of the offender's crimes shows a marked progression. "The signature aspect of a violent criminal offender is a unique and integral part of the offender's behavior. This signature component refers to the psychodynamics, which are the mental and emotional processes underlying human behavior and its motivations."14 Likewise, "From an investigative perspective, it is important to note that an offender's M.O., or 'method of doing things' is a learned behavior and tends to remain consistent."14

In the investigation of rape/sodomy–oriented homicides, remember that you are dealing with a sexual offender. Larger and more progressive police departments usually maintain specialized operations, such as Homicide, Robbery, and Sex Crimes Units. The investigators in these specialized units have a unique advantage. They have become experts within their respective fields and are able to gain an insight into certain criminal behaviors that the average generalist detective will not experience. I think it is good procedure to assign a member of the Sex Crimes Unit to work with the homicide detectives on sex-related homicide investigations. In fact, on major case investigations involving a series of rapes or homicides, I recommend that teams of Sex Crimes and Homicide detectives work together in a task force type of operation.

I also recommend another one of the books within my Practical Aspects of Criminal and Forensic Investigations series, Practical Investigation of Sex Crimes: A Strategic and Operational Approach,15 by Thomas P. Carney, a retired commanding officer of NYPD's Manhattan Special Victims Squad and one of my former colleagues.

I remember a particularly brutal rape–homicide in which the semi-nude body of a 21-year-old victim was found dumped in a Bronx lot. The victim was an art therapist who was last seen at a college campus in New Rochelle, New York. Her body was discovered at approximately noon on Saturday. At the time of the body's discovery, the victim's car was missing as were her wallet and keys. She had been at the New Rochelle Public Library on Friday, the previous day, and had checked out a few books. An autopsy confirmed that the young woman had been raped and that the cause of death was due to manual strangulation. The day after her body was discovered, someone found her wallet in Pelham, New York, which is a town between the Bronx and New Rochelle. Three days after her murder, her car was located in a parking lot in New Rochelle. In the victim's auto were four library books that she had checked out of the New Rochelle Public Library. There was also a slip of paper from the library upon which she had written the "key numbers" for the books she had borrowed.

It was quite apparent to the New York City Police investigators that the abduction of the deceased had taken place in the Westchester County city of New Rochelle and that, in reality, this investigation should be focused in New Rochelle and Pelham.

The detectives got their first break when the Latent Prints unit was able to develop a fingerprint off the slip of paper from the library that had been found in the victim's car. However, there were no suspects with whom to compare this print and the investigation began to wind down. Detectives from the Bronx decided to look into all rape and sex crimes within Westchester County during the period of the murder. A rape pattern, which is actually "a sexual assault pattern, can be described as multiple sexual assaults (rape, sodomy, sexual abuse) forcibly committed by the same person upon unsuspecting victims."15

The investigators came up with a rape pattern involving a black male, 27 years of age, who had been arrested and convicted for rape and abduction. In fact, he had been apprehended with another victim less than half a mile from where the Bronx victim's body had been found. Detectives requested a latent print check of the suspect's fingerprints with the slip of paper from the victim's car. The latent print from the murder case matched that of the suspect, who was incarcerated in the Westchester County Jail. However, when the information was presented to the Bronx District Attorney's Office in 1984, the late Mario Merola, District Attorney for the Bronx, declined to prosecute, citing lack of evidence.10

I ordered this investigation to be reopened in 1985. The detective who had originally discovered the rape pattern was assigned to the investigation. However, once again, our efforts were thwarted by the failure of the Bronx District Attorney's Office to prosecute.

However, in 1989 — approximately 9 years after the murder — a detective and detective sergeant decided to try a different tactic. Using DNA information supplied by me as well as current newspaper articles dealing with this state-of-the-art forensic technique, they constructed an interview strategy. The strategy was to allow the suspect to peruse the materials on DNA and then convince the offender through explanation of DNA technology that he had been forensically identified as the rapist. The suspect, who had since been released from prison on the rape charges, was invited in for an interview with the New York City detectives.

The suspect, who was "jail smart" but legal stupid, thought that he could invoke the statute of limitations on the rape charge. He would have been correct if the only charge were rape. The statute of limitations on felonies in the state of New York is 7 years. However, the authorities in this case were pursuing a rape–homicide investigation. There is no statute of limitations on homicide.

During the interview, the suspect made statements implicating himself in the rape and indicated that he had an accomplice who actually did the killing. The original police investigation had never revealed an accomplice in the rape pattern for which the suspect had been convicted. Often an offender who is providing police with an inculpatory statement will attempt to minimize his participation. The detectives presumed that this suspect was likewise trying to minimize his involvement and allowed the suspect to continue with his statement. Surprisingly, when the detectives conducted a record check for the alleged accomplice, they were able to document the existence of this person as described by their suspect.

This individual was located and invited in for questioning. This suspect came up with the exact same story as the first suspect. The only difference was in who did the killing. The second suspect predictably blamed the first suspect. However, both suspects were charged with the rape–murder of the 21-year-old victim.

I feel that this case is an excellent example of the principles of practical homicide investigation. Murders are solved because of the tenacity of homicide detectives who care. I was involved in this case, as were a number of other detectives. You can imagine our frustration when the district attorney's office under Merola refused to prosecute. However, that did not prevent the detectives from utilizing tactics, procedures, and forensic techniques to continue to pursue this case. Allow me to quote from the "Oath of Practical Homicide Investigation":

Death investigation constitutes a heavy responsibility, and as such, let no person deter you from the truth and your own personal commitment to see that justice is done, not only for the deceased, but for the surviving family as well.16

Categories of Rapists

I recommend another textbook from my Practical Aspects of Criminal and Forensic Investigations series, the third edition of Practical Aspects of Rape Investigation: A Multidisciplinary Approach, for further information and case studies of these types of offenders.17

According to Groth, Burgess, and Holmstrom,18 there are four categories of rapists: (1) power reassurance, (2) power assertive, (3) anger retaliatory, and (4) anger excitation. I will list the categories with a brief description.

1. POWER REASSURANCE — This type assaults to assure himself of his masculinity. He lacks the confidence to interact socially and sexually with women.

Indoor type

Victim alone with small children

Local victims

Attacks victims as they are asleep

Uses ski mask or pillow (or) makes victim turn over

Loner type; dominant mother

May keep a diary or scrapbook Victim can negotiate

Takes a souvenir

Probably is married

Weapon only for show

Maintains guilt; may call the victim

Will kiss victim; wants to please her

Underachiever

Nonathletic

2. POWER ASSERTIVE — This type has no doubts as to his masculinity. He uses rape to express his dominance over women. He uses force.

Same age as victims

Cruises for victims

Resides in area near crime

Selects victim of opportunity

Short time span between attacks

Prior institutionalization

Selfish actions

Poor record if in military service Sports minded

Flashy vehicle

Body conscious

Tears clothing

Oral assault

Direct approach

Commits crime outdoors

Alcohol user

3. ANGER RETALIATORY — This type is getting even with women. He uses sex as a weapon to punish and degrade. He is anger oriented.

Strikes out at women; may select Selects symbolic victims prostitutes or elderly Tears clothing

Does not spend much time Uses alcohol

Blitz style of attack Random times (no pattern)

4. ANGER EXCITATION — This type is sexually turned on by the victim's response to the infliction of physical and/or emotional pain. The sexual acts will be varied and experimental and intended to cause pain.

Might work with an accomplice Into S&M activities

No mental or health problems No remorse

Uses auto Brings weapon

Uses degrading language Good I.Q.

Deviant-Oriented Assault — the Lust Murder

Anatomy of Lust Murder Definition:

Lust murders are homicides in which the offender stabs, cuts, pierces, or mutilates the sexual regions or organs of the victim's body. The sexual mutilation of the victim may include evisceration, piquerism, displacement of the genitalia in both males and females, and the removal of the breasts in a female victim (defeminization). It also includes activities such as "posing" and "propping" of the body, the insertion of objects into the body cavities, anthropophagy (consumption of blood and/or flesh) and necrophilia.19

Lust murders are predicated on the obsessive fantasies of the offender. It is not enough for these types of killers just to kill; they have a compulsive need to act out their fantasies with their victims and their victims' bodies. This would be the "Signature" component of the crime.1

A psychological perspective of the development and effects of deviant fantasies and behaviors can be found in the psychosexual disorders, specifically sexual sadism and other paraphilias as they are listed in DSM-IV.

Lust murder may be classified as organized or disorganized depending on the psychopathology manifested in the crime scene and the killings. In addition, lust murders may have a homosexual as well as heterosexual orientation. In the case of Jeffrey Dahmer, all of the psychodynamics of lust murder were acted out on his male victims, some of whom he cannibalized.

In the case of an organized lust murderer, there will be penis assault as well as torture inflicted on the live victim consistent with controlled rage. In the case of a disorganized offender, the victim will be immediately rendered unconscious or dead by a "blitz" style of attack, and there will be evidence of symbolic and postmortem sexual activities.

In both instances, however, the cutting, mutilation and overkill type of wound structures will be directed toward those parts of the body that the offender finds sexually significant to him and that serve as a sexual stimulus. This is consistent with sexual sadism, which is a chronic and progressive disorder. Sadism is a compelling element in some lust murders; in others, arousal is not derived from the infliction of pain and suffering of the victim but rather from the act of killing.

Lust murderers can also be distinguished from other sex related homicide offenders by their involvement in necrophilia. In fact, the dynamics of lust murder and necrophilia are intimately connected. The Jeffrey Dahmer and Ted Bundy cases are examples of this dynamic.

Psychodynamics1

• The lust murderer who engages in necrophilia may not witness any prolonged degree of suffering on the part of the victim. However, he is likely to call upon his imagination and fantasy to supply him with the necessary engram to satisfy his craving for his depravity.

(A) (B)

Figure 14.17 (A) GANG RAPE AND LUST MURDER. Victim was discovered under a bridge of a highway within a rural area in McLean County, Illinois. This particular highway served as a truck route between Chicago and St. Louis. At first, authorities felt they were dealing with a serial killer due to the location of discovery. This location was obviously a disposal site. The body was hog-tied and bound in plastic bags and there were two used condoms found at the location of discovery. An examination of the body indicated that there was a hole in the plastic bags in the area of the perineum of the victim. It appeared that the offender(s) had sexual intercourse with the victim's body after she was bound. (B) BODY AT AUTOPSY. There was evidence of multiple stabbing to the chest area, which is consistent with sex-related homicides. (C) The medical examiner observed white plastic in the area of the perineum of the victim. Three plastic bags were removed from the vaginal vault of the victim. These three bags bore latent prints of one of the suspects of this rape–murder. (Courtesy of Lieutenant Mike Essig, McLean County Sheriff's Department, Bloomington, Illinois.) Continued.

(C)

Figure 14.17 Continued.

Figure 14.18 CLASSIC LUST MURDER — SEX-RELATED HOMICIDE, DISORGANIZED OFFENDER. After postmortem mutilation and sexual abuse, the body was positioned in a sexually provocative manner significant to the offender. There is postmortem binding as well as penis substitution into the vaginal canal with foreign objects (see the case history). (From the author's files.)

Figure 14.19 PIQUERISM. Piquerism is the sexual inclination to stab, pierce, or cut — obtaining sexual gratification from the shedding of blood, tearing of flesh, and/or observing such pain and suffering of a victim who is subjected to this activity. This photo illustrates the dynamic of piquerism. The victim was attacked in her bedroom by a fetish burglar, who then engaged in this conduct with the victim's body. (Courtesy of retired Detective Marsha Reed, Ft. Collins, Colorado, Police Department.)

• The lust murderer may also torture victims before killing them and then recall an after-image engram of the sensation produced by the physical torture and mutilation. This sadistic scenario is thus conjured in the imagination, whether it is a recreation of the actual crime scene or the product of fantasy.

• Most lust murders are viewed as behaviors of sadistic sexual psychopaths. This is the type of offender who tortures and kills for sexual gratification and characterizes the prototypical serial killer, who is an organized offender.

However, it should be understood that disorganized offenders are also capable of similar behavior and engage in related sadistic activities with their victims as well.

The primary difference between the organized and disorganized lust murderer is the inability of the disorganized offender to repeatedly escape apprehension. In fact, most disorganized lust murderers are apprehended at the time of the event or shortly thereafter.

Lust murders are premeditated in the obsessive fantasies of the offender. According to studies conducted by the FBI, most of these offenders are disorganized and do not engage in penis penetration of the victim. Instead, they may masturbate upon their victims and engage in postmortem mutilation. There may be displacement of the breasts of females (defeminization), postmortem attack of the genitalia of males and females, evisceration, insertion of objects into the body cavities of victims, and sometimes anthropophagy, the consumption of human flesh and blood. However, in the case of an organized lust murderer, there will be penis assault as well as other varied acts inflicted on the victim. The cutting and overkill types of wound structures will be directed toward those parts of the body that the offender finds sexually significant to him.

The offender usually lives or works in close proximity to the crime scene. This type of killer, who acts on the spur of the moment, is obsessed with some sort of perverse fantasy. In his mind, he has planned the event. However, when the opportunity presents itself, this type of offender does not have a plan for avoiding detection. He panics or becomes so involved in the fantasy that he is totally oblivious to the fact that he is leaving evidence behind.

I remember participating in an investigation in which the nude body of a 26year-old woman had been discovered on the roof landing of her Bronx building. She had been the victim of a classic lust murder. The young woman's jaw and nose had been broken suggesting a blitz style of attack. She had been manually strangled with a strap from her purse and her panties had been placed over her face (depersonalization). Her body had been placed in a grotesque position (a position which was probably sexually significant to the offender). Her nylon stockings had been loosely tied around her wrists, suggesting evidence of symbolic postmortem binding (fantasy and symbolism). The items used to create this postmortem binding came from the victim and included a belt, which was draped across her abdomen representing bondage.

The killer had cut off the victim's nipples and placed them upon her chest. An umbrella and a pen had been inserted into the dead girl's vagina (penis substitution), and a comb was placed in her pubic hair. The words "fuck you" were written upon her abdomen, and on the inside of her left thigh, the killer had etched in pen, "You can't stop me." In addition, there were postmortem bite marks on the victim's thighs. This offender was classified as disorganized based on the analysis of the crime scene information. The profile, which was prepared by the FBI, matched all of our suspects developed during the police investigation. However, there was one particular suspect of interest on whom we were focused early in the investigation. He was the son of the superintendent at the building where the young woman had been found. He was also an outpatient at a local psychiatric hospital and stayed with his father when he was not at the psychiatric center.

The suspect claimed to have been in the hospital on the day of the murder. The authorities had already ascertained that the suspect had been absent from the institution on that day. However, the hospital records did not indicate his absence. This created an additional problem for the police, who were attempting to obtain a court order for teeth impressions of the suspect. Hospital administration was not about to admit this transgression. When the court order was finally approved, the suspect's teeth impressions were compared with the bite mark evidence. Three forensic dentists agreed that the suspect had inflicted the bite mark wounds on the victim's body.

The suspect was arrested after an exhaustive 13-month police investigation. The bite-mark evidence was crucial in the outcome of the case. The suspect was found guilty and is presently serving 25 years to life in a New York State facility.10

Lust murders are primarily heterosexual and intraracial, but can also be homosexual. In Chapter 15, I present examples of the homosexual lust murder. I prepared a case analysis for a jurisdiction which experienced a vicious lust murder of a young boy. He had been multiply stabbed, sticks and dirt had been forced into his throat, and the body had been sexually mutilated.

Case History

I had the opportunity to assess a sex-related homicide for the United States Postal Inspections Service. The case involved the lust murder of a female letter carrier. The crime had originally been classified as an attempted rape. However, upon analysis of the case reports, the crime scene information, the victimology, and the facts of the case, it was soon apparent that the offender in this investigation was a classic disorganized personality. In my opinion, this offender would not have been able to perform sexually with a live victim. Any sexual activity that would have taken place would have occurred after death.

The victim was a 30-year-old letter carrier. Her partially nude body had been discovered in the rear seat of her postal vehicle in a church parking lot. This location was approximately 1 mile from the deceased's assigned route. There was evidence of blunt force trauma to the head and multiple stabbing to the torso. The victim's uniform shirt and bra had been pulled up over her arms exposing the woman's breasts. The obvious lack of blood for such devastating injuries suggested that the victim had been killed elsewhere and the body had been transported to this location.

There was an extensive amount of evidence in and upon the postal vehicle. In fact, police used a flatbed truck to transport the vehicle directly to the lab. The large amount of bloodstained mail suggested that the victim had not gotten too far along her route. The murder weapon was found in the trunk of the car, along with the shoes of the victim and additional bloodstained mail. The mail bore bloody footprints that did not match the victim's shoes as well as bloody fingerprints. On the rear of the trunk was a patent print in blood. Crime scene technicians also located vegetative matter consistent with plant debris, long strands of blond hair (the victim was a brunette), a large leaf from a philodendron plant, small flecks of green and blue paint, and a portion of panty hose that did not belong to the victim. An inspection of the odometer of the postal auto did not show any significant deviation from the carrier's assigned route except for the distance between the delivery area and the church parking lot. The autopsy revealed the cause of death to be cerebral hemorrhage and stabbing wounds. The victim had 18 stab wounds from a hunting knife, which was matched to the knife recovered at the scene, and had suffered extreme blunt force trauma to the head. The time of death was placed between 12:00 noon and 2:00 P.M. that day. The victim had last been seen at approximately 11:30 A.M. and only a small portion of her mail had actually been delivered.

It was obvious to seasoned detectives that the actual assault and murder had taken place somewhere along the victim's mail route. However, they could not utilize the undelivered mail to ascertain deliveries because the mail recovered from the victim's auto contained evidence. Investigators targeted her postal route and conducted a door-to-door canvass in an attempt to locate the crime scene. Tracking dogs were brought in and scented with a leather steering wheel cover. The dogs led investigators back to the victim's route. Detectives located the crime scene and discovered blood on the driveway of the home. In addition, there was a large philodendron plant on the front porch. The vegetative matter found on the victim's body came from a juniper bush in front of the house. The blue and green flecks of paint came from the weathered Christmas bulbs, which were left on the house year round. The paint had flecked and fallen into the cracks in the driveway. When the suspect had dragged the body from the house, the trace evidence had adhered to the woman's body.

Police obtained a search warrant for the premises. Although the interior of the house had been cleaned and scrubbed, additional evidence of the crime was recovered, including the matching piece of panty hose found in the auto.

The offender was an 18-year-old youth who had dropped out of high school. He was a loner with a drug habit. He was enrolled in a community college but was doing poorly. He was described as weird and argumentative by persons who knew him. At one point, he had lived in a tent behind his house for a 6-month period. The long strands of blond hair found at the crime scene came from the family dog. The suspect had been having sex with his dog and was reportedly into solo sex-related activities, which involved sadistic fantasies. The pieces of pantyhose in this particular case were fetish items for the offender. He was found guilty and is presently incarcerated.10,20

It should be noted that despite the fact that most of these deviant-oriented homicides and lust murders are committed by disorganized type offenders, the investigator must keep in mind that organized offenders are just as likely to involve themselves in this type of conduct. The Jerome Henry Brudos case is an excellent example of such a circumstance.

Jerome Henry Brudos was considered by his neighbors to be a gentle mild mannered man. To his employers, he was considered an expert electrician, the kind of skilled worker you just don't find anymore. To his wife Darcie, Jerry was a good husband and a loving father to their children despite his increasingly bizarre sexual demands on her. To the Oregon police, Jerry Brudos was the most hideously twisted killer they had ever unmasked.21

Jerry Brudos killed four young women in a series of lust murders predicated on a sadistic and bizarre plan to kidnap and kill women, whom he would force to dress and pose in various sexually provocative positions. In some instances, he would continue to dress the bodies after death and interact with the corpses. This series of lust murders began with the killing of an encyclopedia saleswoman who mistakenly went to Jerry Brudo's home. Brudos, who had a number of fetishes for women's panties and high-heel shoes, amputated the woman's foot after killing her. He then placed this foot into various high-heel shoes which he had stolen and kept in his workshop. He preserved the foot by keeping it in the freezer in his workshop in his garage.

The second killing took place about 10 months later. Brudos strangled this victim and then took her body to his workshop where he engaged in necrophilia with the corpse. He removed this victim's breast and attempted to make an epoxy mold of it.

The third victim, whom he abducted at gunpoint, was brought to his garage workshop alive. He had sexual intercourse with the victim and then took pictures of her dressed in various stolen undergarments in his collection. He then strangled her. However, he was not finished with his outrages. He performed necrophilia with the corpse and then cut off both her breasts to make plastic molds.

Less than 1 month later, Brudos killed his fourth victim, a 22-year-old college student that he tricked into his car when he displayed a fake police badge and told her she had to accompany him to the police station. He brought her back to his garage, where he strangled her as he was raping her. He then hung her corpse from a hook in the ceiling and undressed the body, which he subjected to electrical charges to see if he could make the body dance. He also engaged in necrophilia with this corpse before disposing of the body.

In each of these cases, the victims were brought to his garage workshop, which he had equipped for this purpose and where he acted out his sadistic sexual fantasies. He then effectively disposed of the bodies by depositing them in rivers. He was apprehended after an intensive police investigation in which he was identified on an attempted assault. He finally admitted his killings in a manner that suggested he was proud of his accomplishments. He at no time showed any remorse.21

The Serial Murder

The definition of serial murder, according to Practical Homicide Investigation, is "two or more separate murders where an individual, acting alone or with another, commits multiple homicides over a period of time, with time breaks between each murder event."14

According to the original definition of the FBI, "Serial murder is the killing of three or more separate victims with emotional time breaks between the killings."22 Douglas et al. state that "serial murders involve three or more separate events, with an emotional cooling off period between homicides."23 These breaks or "cooling off" periods range from days to weeks or months between victims. I concur with the emotional time breaks between the killings and the cooling-off periods in their definition. I do take issue with waiting for the third incident before some "expert" decides whether it is a serial murder case.

In the real world of homicide investigation, two murders make a series. Some specialists in the FBI have since amended their definition of serial murder to the Practical Homicide® model.

In my professional opinion as an expert in homicide investigation, one of the original and most complete studies of the research into the serial killer can be found in Sexual Homicide: Patterns and Motives.22

There has been a great deal of public interest generated in the phenomenon of serial murder. A number of books and articles have been published on the subject. There have been television documentaries as well as major Hollywood movies such as Silence of the Lambs, Hannibal, and Red Dragon, as well as many serial murder

Figure 14.20 FANTASY DRAWING. This fantasy drawing prepared by the offender is extremely significant because it depicts exactly what he was doing to his victims. Many times an offender will prepare materials or draw pictures of his perverted interests, which are based on what he has engaged in with his victims. (Courtesy of Deputy District Attorney Jim Yontz, Potter County District Attorney's Office, Amarillo, Texas.)

cases presented on the A&E and Discovery channels. The NBC miniseries based upon the deviant exploits of Ted Bundy, a convicted serial killer who was finally executed by the State of Florida in 1989, is still periodically aired.

In the case of the psychopathic killer who is a serial murderer, I would suggest, based upon my personal experience and research into these types of offenders, that they kill because they like to kill. In fact, in my Sex-Related Homicide and Death Investigations: Practical and Clinical Perspective textbook,1 I have an entire chapter, "Psychopathic Sexual Sadism — A Clinical Study," to address the psychopathology of these types of killers.

According to Ressler et al.,22 "These men have conscious, detailed plans for murder. Often these plans are improved on with each successive killing; each new experience gives the offender insight into his next murder."

Serial killers have been described as intelligent, charismatic, street-wise, charming, and generally good looking. They are mobile individuals capable of traveling any number of miles in search of the "right" victim. I analyzed one case in which the killer cruised a local strip for 3 hours and put over 120 miles on his van while

Figure 14.21 VICTIM POSITION TO FULFILL FANTASY. This photo of a victim being sexually tortured is very much like the fantasy drawing in the previous photo. David Parker Ray was a serial killer responsible for multiple sexual murders of young women. (Courtesy of Deputy District Attorney Jim Yontz, Potter County District Attorney's Office, Amarillo, Texas.) searching for a victim. They target a certain type of victim. They look for someone who is vulnerable and easy to control. Their victims may be males or females. They may select children, vagrants, prostitutes, or homosexuals. If the victim is a female, she may resemble other female victims in some aspect (long hair, brunette or redhead, coed, nurse, waitress, female executive, etc.). (See Chapter 15, "Homosexual Homicides.")

The Serial Killer Profile

• Their crimes are sadistic and repetitive in nature and, in most instances, sexually oriented.

• Their crimes are geographically oriented.

• They plan their murders, their approach and escape routes, and the site of their attack, as well as the disposal site for their victims' bodies.

• They research their craft and adjust their operations as required to access and control victims as well as thwart the police investigation.

The original FBI theory that serial killers were white males, late 20s to early 40s has proven to be wrong. Practically speaking, known serial killers are heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual. Most serial killers are men (95%).

Female serial killers are extremely rare. Aileen Wournos is one of the more infamous female serial killers whom the "Hollywood types" decided to make into some sort of counterculture victim–feminist type of character in the movie Monster. As usual, the truth was relegated to the back-burners and the victims were demonized in order produce a sympathetic character.

Women who have been charged with serial murder usually are in partnership with a male offender, who choreographs the events. Examples of male/female serial killing couples include:

• Douglas Clark and Carol Bundy

• Alton Coleman and Denise Brown

• Gerald Gallego and his wife, Charlene

• Paul Bernardo and his wife Karla

• David Parker Ray and his girlfriend Cindy Hendy

Serial killers can be white, black, Hispanic, Asian, and/or Native American; in fact, they can be from any ethnic grouping. Serial killers can come from all races, cultures, nationalities, education level, economic level, gender, and sexual orientation. Statistically speaking, most serial murderers in the United States are predominantly white. However, there has been an increase in black male serial killers, most of whom have had a history of rape and/or other sexual assault and kill to prevent identification.

In fact, there have been a number of serial murder cases involving black males who have targeted prostitutes within the inner city. Major cities, such as New York, Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, Atlanta, Baton Rouge, and New Orleans, offer examples. Black serial killers include Wayne Williams, Alton Coleman, Derrick Todd Lee, Coral Watts, Kendell Francois, and Maury Travis, to mention a few.

Serial murderers may or may not have superior intelligence; however, most are street-wise. This is what enables them to function very effectively and repeatedly avoid apprehension. Serial killers are methodical and cunning. They plan and research their crimes and display a complete indifference to others because they are self-centered and thrive on self-gratification, whether it is sexual gratification or to fulfill a fantasy. In some instances, the murders are to express control. In other instances, the murders are for the pleasure of possessing the power of life and death over another person.

Serial killers are extremely manipulative. Often, they are able to talk their victim into what has been described as their "comfort zone." This is a location where the serial killer feels comfortable and safe and can control the victim. Frequently, serial killers target prostitutes. Arthur Shawcross admitted to killing 11 women, whom he picked up in Rochester in an area frequented by prostitutes. He then dumped their bodies in rural areas as well as the Genesee River. Gary Ridgeway admitted to killing 61 women as the "Green River Killer." He was adept at engaging the prostitutes because he "walked the walk and talked the talk." He was able to pick up victims quickly without attracting attention because he had an intimate knowledge of the area and its denizens.

Many times, serial killers use a ruse to gain access to a potential victim. Ted Bundy, when he was not purporting to be a police officer, used a cast on his arm to feign injury and appear to be vulnerable as he targeted his victims. John Wayne Gacy lured young men into his comfort zone by offering them jobs in his construction business. Bittaker and Norris, Alan Gore and Waterfield, Michael Ross, and others offered hitchhikers a lift or, as in the case of Christopher Wilder, posed as a talent scout and offered modeling assignments. Bianchi and Bouno as well as others have posed as police officers. They continually perfect their ruse and seem to have an uncanny knack at recognizing potential victims. They are able to quickly gain the victim's confidence with their verbal skills.

Many serial killers have a fascination for police procedure. Some have even worked as police officers, reserve officers, or security guards and used their experience to avoid detection. Some have been known to frequent police hangouts and eavesdrop on police conversations during a case. They may even interject themselves into the investigation or offer to assist authorities in some manner, which will avail them an opportunity to monitor the investigation.

In many instances, serial killers go back to the crime scene or location where the body was discovered. They usually return to make sure that they have not left any evidence or to assess the police investigation. The burial site also has a psychological significance to them because they have an "ownership" over the remains. Sometimes, the serial killer will return to a site to taunt police with additional clues. In Gary Ridgeway's case, he would attempt to throw off the investigators by leaving bogus evidence. Ridgeway, who neither smoked nor chewed gum, left chewing gum and cigarette butts at dump sites. At one scene, he scattered airport motel pamphlets and car rental papers to imply that the killer was a traveling salesman. According to Keppel, "In February 1984 Ridgeway wrote a letter to the local newspaper that was designed to throw police off the track.... The letter suggested that the killer was a traveling salesman or long-distance trucker, and that the killings were motivated by profit or revenge."24 Ridgeway also returned to one of his dumpsites to retrieve the remains of two of his victims, which he transported to Oregon to make authorities believe that the Green River Killer had moved south.

In addition, Ridgeway would often go back to his dumpsite and have necrophilic sex with the dead victim's corpse and/or bring girlfriends to the locations where he had dumped bodies and have sexual intercourse with them there as some sort of sick thrill.

The serial killer, despite his outward facade, is a very insecure individual. He is without power unless he is in control. This is reflected in his personal life and in his behavior. He is at his "peak" when he has a victim under his control. He enjoys the publicity of his crimes for the same reason.

Serial killers are likely to follow news events of their crimes very closely and gain satisfaction in the knowledge that they have defeated the police. Some com-

municate with the press. David Berkowitz, the "Son of Sam" serial killer in New York City, communicated with authorities by sending cryptic messages to a major metropolitan newspaper.

In St. Louis, Missouri, a serial killer named Maury Travis was captured after sending a letter to a reporter directing him to the location of his "17th" victim. Travis committed suicide in jail before authorities could learn more about him and his activities. However, it was estimated that he was responsible for approximately 20 homicides of black, female prostitutes and drug users in Missouri and Illinois.

Initially, back in the 1970s "BTK" sent messages to the press demanding that they acknowledge his killings by affording him a title like other serial murderers. At that time, the unknown serial killer, who called himself BTK, indicated that the initials were derived from the words, bind them, torture them, kill them. In his earlier communication, he wanted to know why he was not being given his recognition. He mentioned Son of Sam, Jack the Ripper, Harvey Glatman, the Hillside Strangler, and others, including a reference to "Ted" of the West Coast (meaning Ted Bundy).

For all intents and purposes, the BTK killer had virtually disappeared from the scene. Then, without explanation, in 2004 he reemerged. Due to some malignant narcissistic need for publicity, Dennis Rader initiated and carried on a yearlong communication with authorities that ultimately led to his identification and arrest. Dennis L. Rader, a life-long resident in the Wichita, Kansas, area, was the BTK killer.

My research has indicated that many of these serial killers are aware of police techniques. For example, perpetrators of crimes will change their modus operandi as they become more sophisticated in their criminal activities. Some criminals even read specialized journals to learn about law enforcement techniques. Many of the serial killers within my study followed the police investigation in the newspapers and media. They would adjust their activities and change their modus operandi to thwart the police investigation. In fact, many of these serial murderers were "students" of serial killings and had read about the activities of other serial murderers in the many popular books detailing these cases.25

Jack Owen Spillman III had revealed his sexual fantasies, which included murder, to his cellmate and others while incarcerated. He bragged about his ambition to become the worst serial killer in the country. His fantasies included sexual assault, evisceration, and sexual mutilation of girls. Spillman talked to his cellmate about hair evidence and using gloves with tape to prevent any hair from being left at the scene. He read and studied books on murders, serial killers, and police investigation, including FBI law enforcement bulletins.

Organized Serial Killer Activities

The serial killer engages in purposeful postmortem mutilation of the corpse as opposed to the disorganized offender who engages in sexual or exploratory mutilation. The organized offender will employ mutilation to hinder identification, for shock value, or to allow ease of transport of the body. Remember that organized and disorganized offenders commit lust murders.

In one of the New York City serial murders, the offender removed the heads and hands of two prostitutes in order to prevent the identification of the victims. In another case, this offender removed the breasts of one of his victims and left them on the bed board for police to find. Some serial killers have posed their victims' bodies or left them in an open area.

The serial killer who displays bodies and body parts does so for the shock value. In the Gainesville, Florida, case in which a serial killer named Danny Rollings terrorized an entire college community, the police were confronted with posed bodies, which had been horribly mutilated. In one particularly grotesque murder scene, Rollings had eviscerated the nude victim and had sliced off both of her nipples. He then decapitated the young woman and propped her head up on a bookshelf. The first officer who entered the scene would see the head with its eyes open, staring back at him.26

Serial killers may choose to leave the body of their victim for discovery to satisfy some psychological need, or they may go through elaborate detail to assure that the body is never found. Serial killings are considered by a number of experts in the field of psychology and psychiatry to represent the ultimate extension of violence. From a rational standpoint, serial killings are completely senseless acts. However, in the mind of the serial killer, he experiences great pleasure in exerting power and control over his victim, including the power of life and death. The sex act is secondary. He is excited by the cruelty of the act and will engage in physical and psychological torture of the victim. He derives his pleasure by watching the victim writhe in pain as she is humiliated and tortured to death.

Kenneth Bianchi and Angelo Bouno, dubbed "The Hillside Strangler" because authorities were not aware that there were two killers, sexually violated and brutally murdered 12 young women between them. They would tape and gag their victims and proceed to torture and sexually abuse them. Bianchi and Bouno experimented with various techniques of torture for their victims, such as injecting them with Windex, smothering them with gas from the stove, subjecting them to electrical shock, and then eventually killing them by strangulation when they tired of their perverse and inhuman entertainment.27

The serial killer operates in an emotionally detached manner. It is almost as if he is following a script. The script is usually based upon a sadistic fantasy. Police investigations of serial murderers have revealed intricate and precise planning on the part of the serial killer. In some instances, detectives have seized recorded evidence of the offense, such as audio tape recordings of his victim's screams of pain, writings, photos, and even videotape segments of their sadistic activities. The videotapes depicting the atrocities committed by Leonard Lake and Charles Ng in Calaveras County, California, are an example of the depravity of a sadistic serial killer.

Lawrence Bittaker and Roy Norris, however, provide the most graphic example of evil. These two psychopaths, who met in prison, shared a mutual interest in female domination, rape, torture, and murder. They eventually murdered five young women using a combination of methods, which included stabbing them through the ears with an ice pick and strangling them manually and with wire coat hangers tightened around the victims' necks with pliers. They tape recorded two of their torture sessions while they repeatedly raped, sodomized, and tortured the young women.

In each of these examples, the conduct displayed by the offenders suggests that the sex act is secondary. Instead, the offenders are sexually excited by the cruelty of the acts and engage in physical and psychological torture of the victims. They obtain their gratification through the humiliation and torture of their prey. The murder is an expression of power and control. Necrophilia is an extension of their control and sadistic quest for complete and total domination.

Other offenders have used a variety of torture techniques, such as biting, whipping, burning, electricity, and forcing the victim to ingest a caustic cleaning fluid.

Many of these serial killers seemingly maintained a respectable lifestyle and engaged in sexual relations with a primary female in their lives. However, most do not have any type of satisfactory relationship with anyone. They are nonaffiliates and nonsocial individuals totally vested in self-gratification to a point where nothing else matters.

Most of the serial killers interviewed by the FBI's Behavioral Science Unit or by psychiatrists conducting independent examinations reported that they had been victims of child abuse, usually at the hands of a female parent or parent figure. Many of the offenders were reportedly under the influence of alcohol or marijuana while committing the crime, which tended to exacerbate their sadistic fantasies.

The serial killer tends to increase his killings. It appears that he must kill more often to maintain his equilibrium. The fantasy and psychic high that he obtains through his conduct induces bold and more frequent attacks, sometimes with a complete disregard of risk. Consequently, many of the country's most notorious serial killers were caught by accident or during some independent police action not related to the murder investigation.

Disorganized Serial Killer Activities

The disorganized serial killers, who would fit the clinical description of psychotic, are in the minority because they lack the ability and wherewithal to escape apprehension repeatedly. An excellent example of the disorganized offender is the case of Richard Trenton Chase, who was conclusively linked to the murders of six individuals, five of whom were killed in one week. This case is presented in Chapter 21.

David Berkowitz, the infamous "Son of Sam" murderer, is another example of this type of serial killer. Berkowitz terrorized New York City for 13 months. The killings began in July 1976. Berkowitz preferred young women with long dark hair. His victims were usually parked in cars when they were attacked. The police at first were baffled by these seemingly unrelated shootings and murders. However, once the ballistics were matched and notes were left at the scenes, the authorities knew they had a serial killer on their hands. Berkowitz used the name "Son of Sam" when he communicated with the press. In these communications, he claimed to be getting messages from his neighbor's dog, which ordered him to kill. By the time Berkowitz was caught, he had killed six victims and wounded seven others.

Serial Murder Investigation

Serial murder investigations are often stymied because there is a tendency for some agencies to jealously guard their respective "turfs" and not confer with other law enforcement agencies in the region or ask for help from an "outside" agency. Serial offenders who realize that law enforcement will probably miss the linkage use this dynamic by killing their victims in different jurisdictions.

Serial murder investigation entails that the police agency recognize that they are in the midst of a serial murder case and take the necessary and appropriate measures to legitimately sustain a task force with the necessary manpower, equipment, and resources. Many times, police agencies under pressure from the media and/or general public will make an announcement that they have formed a task force to investigate a series of crimes or a major event. However, the alleged "task force" exists only in name to assuage the community and lacks the financial and psychological support of the command staff.

The Shawcross serial murder case in the Rochester, New York, was an extremely expensive undertaking. According to Captain Lynn Johnson, commanding officer of the Criminal Investigation Unit, "The costs associated with the investigation were unexpected. Conservative estimates for on-duty personnel, overtime, and nonpersonal services alone were $572,559. If the patrol-time, training, administrative management factors and volunteer efforts were included, the figure could be dramatically inflated to over 2 million dollars.28 I do not know of many municipalities financially equipped to deal with this expenditure — not to mention the pressure associated with a full-blown serial murder case.

Dr. Robert Keppel has an excellent textbook that addresses this subject: The Psychology of Serial Killer Investigations: The Grisly Business Unit,29 written by Keppel and William J. Birns. One of the early quotes in that book is attributed to my good friend and colleague, retired Lieutenant Ray Biondi, who addressed The Fifth National Conference on Homicide, Unidentified Bodies, and Missing Persons in Nashville, Tennessee. According to Lieutenant Biondi, it is necessary to recognize and acknowledge that a serial killer is responsible for the events. Biondi presents

• A quick and valid interpretation that one murder is related to another murder

• A reliable admission to others that a serial killer is operating within a particular jurisdiction

• A strategy that properly commands, staffs, and funds the investigative effort29

I have incorporated some of Keppel's proposals on serial murder task force operations coupled with my experience and research into the cases within this section of the textbook. I recommend that the reader obtain his book for further and complete reference.

Command Responsibilty

• There must be a working agreement about who is "in charge" or who will "run the show."

• If there is not one leader, all that gets accomplished are meetings that try to placate everyone.

• Remember that dealing with egos, politics, and differing investigative philosophies places a strain on all aspects of the investigation.

• Even though a request to have a "joint investigation" looks good on paper, it is very inefficient and results in delays, which hampers a meaningful investigation.

As a homicide investigator, you should focus on the similarities of cases as you develop an investigative hypothesis. If you have a second victim killed in a similar fashion with an M.O. and signature consistent with the other case, you must think of the possibility of a serial killer. There is a tendency on the part of some investigators to ignore the possibility that one case may be related to another case because the offender used a different method to kill his victim (stabbing vs. strangulation), especially if the homicides occur in different jurisdictions. That is why establishing the victimology is a crucial component of the investigative process.

Westley Allen Dodd was a serial killer who targeted young boys. Dodd was a pedophile and psychopathic sexual sadist who tortured and killed three little boys during September and October in the Vancouver area of Washington State. The police investigation had been hampered by lack of any witnesses or information. Two different law enforcement agencies were involved in this investigation and the composite sketches showed two different suspects. In fact, there was considerable discord whether these two events were related. The first two children had been stabbed to death. The third victim had been strangled to death.

Dodd was captured as he attempted to kidnap a screaming little 6-year-old boy from a movie theater. He had been prowling the movie house for a victim a few nights after killing his last victim. At first, he denied any involvement in the murders of the other three children. However, police learned he worked near the place where the body of the last victim had been found. Dodd was confronted with additional evidence, including his diary, which graphically detailed the murders. He confessed to all of the brutal slayings.

Linkage Blindnesss

According to Practical Homicide Investigation, "linkage blindness" is a failure to recognize a pattern that "links" one crime with another crime in a series of cases.

It usually occurs when the investigator fails to address the following issues (See "Linkage Blindness" in Chapter 21):

1. Victimology and/or background information paramount to any criminal investigation

2. The geographic region or area of events, as well as psychological barriers such as neighborhoods, ethnicity

3. The "signature" of the offender

4. The "modus operandi" of the offender

5. A thorough review of the autopsy protocols, looking for the similarities or significance of the injuries, wound patterns, toxicology, etc.14

Typical Serial Killer Murder Task Force

• The killer keeps striking and more bodies are discovered as the case continues.

• The more bodies or killings that are discovered, the more incompetent the police appear.

• The murderer becomes part of the "landscape" and he blends in completely with the community.

• The killer is able to prey right through the police surveillance.

• When the serial murder case is solved, the police are amazed at how obvious the killer was.

• The killer knows that the police are on his trail, so he travels outside that jurisdiction to commit murders in other areas, which may not connect the cases.

• Most serial killers are sex offenders who live or work in the same neighborhoods where they are killing. They blend in and in some instances even establish subtle relationships with their victims.

• The serial killer is a 24/7 predator. Even as he attempts to appear normal in his everyday life, he is constantly looking for opportunities to kill.

• His sexual fantasies drive him toward his next victim and ultimately into a frenzy of sexual anticipation and gratification.

• Once his lust is expended, he quickly lapses into a kind of panic or fugue state as he attempts to hide.

• Once he believes it is safe to be seen about, he relives his sexual gratification.

In some cases, the serial killer's gratification and sexual experience have actually been heightened by the activities of the police task forces on his trail. George Russell, who operated in King County, Washington, followed the cases very closely. He engaged in the following activity as he scoffed at the police:

• He cut out newspaper stories.

• He cut out photographs of the victims.

• He compared the victims with each other.

• He ridiculed police techniques.

• He told people that the only way the police would catch the killer was with trace evidence.

Dennis Rader, who dubbed himself the "BTK Killer," was arrested in February 2005. He had taunted Kansas authorities for over 30 years. However, during the last year, from March 2004 till his arrest in February 2005, his communications had become increasingly sarcastic and malicious as he watched the authorities "chase their tails" with his bogus information.

The Typical Serial Killer

• A typical example of a sexual serial killer's response and behavior occurs after he gets away with his first murder.

• He has crossed the "psychological barrier" of murder, accompanied by the "thrill" of his success.

• The thrill is then punctuated by fear that the police know who he is or that he might be caught.

• After a certain amount of time has passed without his being caught and another successful kill has taken place, the serial killer begins to feel that he is invisible to the police.

Richard Allen Krebs was a suspect in two missing persons cases involving college coeds in San Luis Obispo, California. Krebs, who was on parole for rape, had access to a very rural and mountainous area. Rachel Newhouse, a 20-year old coed, was his first murder victim. Rachel was reported missing by her roommates on November 13, 1998. The police considered the case an abduction and formed a task force. Krebs laid low during this high-profile investigation.

However, as soon as he felt that he had eluded the police, he was on the prowl stalking another coed. This time he abducted Aundria Crawford, a 20-year-old coed from San Luis Obispo. The victim's mother reported her missing on March 13 when she had not heard from her. Aundria had been abducted from her duplex apartment sometime in the early morning hours. Krebs later told investigators that he felt more confident after getting away with the Newhouse kidnapping and felt the urge to rape again.1

The goal of any serial murder task force is to find the serial killer before he kills again. One of the most critical breaks is to locate and interview a living witness, someone who got away. For some reason known only to the killer, circumstances were inopportune for the serial killer to kill. A second most critical break occurs when a suspected serial killer is apprehended during a routine police operation unrelated to the murder case.

On June 23, 1993, at 3:15 A.M., New York State troopers on routine patrol observed a motorist operating a vehicle without headlights and missing a rear license plate. When the troopers activated their emergency lights to pull the car over, the suspect attempted to flee. The state troopers captured the driver, identified as Joel Rifkin. In the trunk of Rifkin's mother's car was the rotting corpse of a prostitute named Tiffany Bresciani — Joel Rifkin's 18th victim.

Rifkin eventually confessed to the murders of 17 other New York City prostitutes, whom he had butchered and disposed of in the New York City waterways. He had put the bodies of his victims in oil drums, which he placed in the water. He also had dumped some of the bodies in other jurisdictions to confuse the police. The routine vehicle and traffic stop by the New York State troopers uncovered one of New York State's worst serial killers

Three Main Methods Used to Link Murders

1. Physical evidence

2. Offender description

3. Crime scene behavior

Investigative Considerations

• Most serial offenders are sexually motivated.

• They may have prior arrests for sex-related incidents.

• They may have burglary incidents in their background.

• Investigators should have access to all criminal records as well as those of parole and registered sex offenders.

• These types of offenses do not occur in a vacuum.

• Many times the actual murder is preceded by some other seemingly unrelated sexual event (fetish burglary)

• Any missing persons reports should be examined, especially those for women or children. Many serial murder cases involve the burial or hiding of the body to avoid detection.

• Most serial offenders target prostitutes.

• They may have prior arrests as "Johns" in a "sting." • Many times they will have used the services of other pros.

• They may have assaulted or attempted to assault others.

• They may have attempted to kill but the victim got away.

• Many prostitutes are drug users and therefore are dependent upon this lifestyle to survive.

• Most prostitutes are not going to make police reports.

• Interviews reveal some of the bizarre activities required.

• However, the prostitutes do talk to each other about "Johns" to avoid or "bad" experiences.

• Most prostitute serial murders are solved through a combination of the following tactics:

• Nonthreatening interviews of prostitutes relative to their customers and/or any "strange" events

• Attempts to locate a living witness

• Police "sting" and undercover operations targeting the area where the prostitutes have disappeared or have been killed, to identify "Johns"

• Police "saturation" of the area with "routine vehicle stops for the purpose of identifying potential suspects

Case History — Arthur Shawcross

The investigation of this series of murders began on March 24, 1988, when a woman's body was found in a western Monroe County park. Investigation revealed that the victim had been involved in prostitution in the city of Rochester, New York. On September 11, 1988, another woman's badly decomposed body was discovered in the Genesee River gorge in Rochester. This victim was also a known prostitute. The investigation into these two murders continued for almost a year, when three additional Rochester-area prostitutes linked to the on-going investigation were found murdered.

On October 21, 1989, the skeletal remains of a woman were located in the Genesee River gorge. On October 27, 1989, a second woman's body was located near the same gorge. On November 11, 1989, another woman's body was found in the same area. Investigation revealed that the murdered women were all involved in prostitution.

Rochester Police requested assistance from the New York State Police and the Monroe County Sheriff's Department to conduct an extensive search for additional victims and/or evidence. The searches were conducted by helicopter, on foot, on horseback, and by boat.

Figure 14.23 BODY OF SERIAL MURDER VICTIM. This is a photograph of the fifth victim of the serial killer. Her body was discovered on November 11, 1989, in the Genesee River area. (Courtesy of Captain Lynde Johnson, Criminal Investigations Unit, Rochester, New York, Police Department.)

On November 23, 1989, the body of another known Rochester prostitute was discovered in Wayne County.

As the investigations into the deaths of these women continued, the task force investigators contacted outside agencies throughout the United States who had experience in serial murder investigation for advice and assistance. The discussions focused on successful investigative techniques, investigatory project management, possible crime scene similarities, and criminal offender typologies. As a result, additional emphasis was placed on crime scene protection and intensive searches for trace evidence at each of the crime scenes to forensically link the events and any possible suspect.

On December 31, 1989, clothing and identification were found on a rural road in the town of Sweden in western Monroe County. New York State Police helped in identifying these items as belonging to a known prostitute in Rochester. An intensive search of the area by Rochester Police and New York State Police was initiated. The search, which was hampered by forbidding weather, continued for 4 days. Police K-9 units, mounted officers, foot patrols, and aviation searched the area for evidence.

On January 3, 1990, a New York State Police aviation unit spotted a body lying on the ice under a viaduct. A car was parked on the road above. As the police helicopter passed overhead a second time, the vehicle left the scene. New York State Police ground units were alerted and stopped the vehicle. The driver was identified as Arthur Shawcross, who was questioned and released.

As the task force processed the crime scene in Sweden, a hunter located a second body in the vicinity of where the latest body had been found and additional evidence was retrieved linking Arthur Shawcross to the murders. Shawcross was picked up by task force members and brought in for questioning.

On January 4, 1990, Arthur Shawcross confessed to 11 murders, thus concluding a nearly 2-year investigation conducted by Rochester Police Department, The New York State Police, Monroe County Sheriff's Department, Monroe County District Attorney's Office, Monroe County Medical Examiner's Office, Wayne County Sheriff's Department, and other area law enforcement agencies.28

A Clinical Perspective

In clinical terminology, a serial killer may be defined as psychotic or psychopathic, depending on the information supplied during the examination and the facts presented to the clinician. In my experience, serial killers are rarely psychotic. They are more properly defined as sexual psychopaths or psychopathic sexual sadists, depending on the circumstances of the homicide and what was done to the victim. They obviously have a profound personality disorder but are keenly aware of their criminality and certainly not out of touch with reality. If serial killers were psychotic, they probably would not be as successful in eluding the police.

In the case of the psychotic killer, one could propose that he kills because his psychosis drives him to kill. An example of this type of serial killer was Joseph Kallinger, whose exploits were detailed in Schreiber's 1983 book, The Shoemaker.30 Kallinger reportedly was acting under orders from God to kill his victims. His hallucinations had God commanding him to "destroy mankind" and to "kill three billion people." According to Schreiber, Kallinger could not obtain an erection without the thoughts and images of mutilation of sexual organs.30 From an early

(A)

(B)

Figure 14.24 PHOTOS OF SERIAL MURDER VICTIM. (A) The view that the New York

State Police aviation unit had when it spotted a body under a viaduct. The suspect's car was parked on the bridge above the body. The blue line indicates where the body was. (B) Crime scene photograph of the partially clothed victim's body under the viaduct. (Courtesy of Captain

Lynde Johnson, Criminal Investigations Unit, Rochester, New York, Police Department.)

Figure 14.25 ARTHUR SHAWCROSS. Arrest photos of Arthur Shawcross after he confessed to 11 of the murders. (Courtesy of Captain Lynde Johnson, Criminal Investigations Unit, Rochester, New York, Police Department.)

age, Kallinger associated sex with violence and fantasized about cutting the sexual organs of males and females. He eventually involved his 12-year-old son Michael, who enthusiastically agreed to help his father in this bizarre mission.

Serial killers display aggressive and antisocial behaviors during their childhood, which escalate and take on elements of sexual sadism in adulthood. The style and pattern to their killings involve domination, control, humiliation, and sadistic sexual violence. Their murders are committed without the least sense of guilt or shame and the killers display a total lack of remorse. The victims are chosen at random, and the murders are carried out in almost an obsessive manner. The behaviors of these subjects can appropriately be described as psychopathic sexual sadism.25,31

In any event, it is not the purpose of this chapter to present psychiatric information or engage in an in-depth psychological analysis of the serial murderer. Instead, I present this information from an investigative perspective with clinical references for the purpose of analyzing the sex-related murder investigation.

Conclusion

The criminal investigator confronted with a sex-related homicide investigation should first address the basic crime scene techniques as outlined in Practical Homicide Investigation. He or she should then concentrate on the total documentation and preservation of the scene, including factors that suggest the possible psychodynamics of the event.

Remember the four classifications of sex-related homicide: (1) interpersonal violence-oriented disputes and assaults, (2) rape and/or sodomy-oriented assault, (3) deviant-oriented assault — the lust murder, and (4) the serial murder. I have presented them in the order of their frequency of occurrence. Start your investigation with an eye toward an interpersonal violence scenario and then work your way through the other options. Specific law enforcement strategies can be applied to the investigation upon identification of the motive.

There is a need for a centralized database repository for violent sexual offenses. Homicide detectives conceived the VICAP system to be used by homicide detectives. VICAP was not intended to be an informational source for academic research, selfproclaimed profilers, or the talking heads frequently seen on television. An example of which would be computer analysis of similar offenses, a request for a criminal personality profile through VICAP, utilizing a statewide or regional information system.

From a practical perspective, the solution might be simply to recanvass the neighborhood where the crime took place. Remember that elements of human behavior, human sexuality, and possible sexual deviance exist within each of the four categories presented in this chapter. In any event, there are no simple clues, solutions, or explanations which account for the logic of a person who commits a sex-related homicide.

Just remember: Things are not always what they appear to be.

References

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12. U.S. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics Selected Findings. "Domestic Violence." November 1994.

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Selected Reading

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American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IIIR). 3rd ed. Revised. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1980.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1994.

Blackburn, R. "Psychopathy, Personality Disorder, and Aggression: A Cognitive–Interpersonal Analysis." In Proceedings of the Fourth Symposium on Violence and Aggression, Saskatoon, Canada, June 21–24, 1991–1992.

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Brooks, P., M. Devine, T. Green, B. Hart, and M. Moore. "Serial Murder — A Criminal Justice Response." Police Chief, 54, 37–45, 1988.

Brown, J.S. "The Psychopathology of Serial Sexual Homicide: A Review of the Possibilities." American Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 12, 13–21, 1991.

Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs. Last revised on January 12, 2000.

Burgess, A.W. and R.K. Ressler. Sexual Homicide Crime Scenes and Patterns of Criminal Behavior. Final report. Boston: Boston City Health and Hospitals Department, 1985.

Brussel, J.A. Casebook of a Crime Psychiatrist. New York: Bernard Geis Publishing Co., 1968.

Carney, T.P. Practical Investigation of Sex Crimes: A Strategic and Operational Approach. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press, 2003.

Cartel, M. Disguise of Sanity — Serial Mass Murderers. North Hollywood, CA: Pepperbox Publishing Co., 1985.

Cleckley, H. The Mask of Sanity, 5th ed. Augusta, GA: Emily S. Cleckley, 1988.

Coleman, J.C., J.N. Butcher, and R.C. Carson. Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life, 8th ed. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman and Company, 1988.

Crooks, R. and K. Baur. Our Sexuality, 4th ed. Redwood City, CA: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., Inc., 1990.

De River, J. Crime and the Sexual Psychopath. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas & Co., Inc., 1958.

Dietz, P.E. "Mass, Serial and Sensational Homicides." Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 62:477-491, 1986.

DiMaio, Dominick J., M.D., and J.M. DiMaio, M.D. Forensic Pathology, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 2001.

Douglas, J.E. et al. Crime Classification Manual. New York: Lexington Books, 1992.

Egger, S.A. "Utility of Case Study Approach to Serial Murder Research." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Atlanta, GA, 1986.

Egger, S.A. (Ed.). Serial Murder: An Elusive Phenomenon. New York: Praeger, 1990.

Fromm, E. The Heart of Man: Its Genius for Good and Evil. New York: Harper and Row, 1964.

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Geberth, V.J. "The Investigation of Sex Related Homicides." Law and Order Magazine 34, 40–47, 1986.

Geberth, V.J. "Mass, Serial and Sensational Homicides: The Investigative Perspective." Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine. 62, 492–496, 1986.

Geberth, V.J. "The Oath of Practical Homicide Investigation." 1988.

Geberth, V.J. "Serial Murder: A Psychology of Evil." Law and Order Magazine, 40, 107–110, 1992.

Geberth, V.J. "Lust Murder: The Psychodynamics of the Killer and the Psychosexual Aspects of the Crime." Homicide Investigators Journal, Spring, 1992.

Geberth, V.J. Antisocial Personality Disorder, Sexual Sadism, and Serial Murder. Thesis. California Coast University, July, 1994.

Geberth, V.J. "Serial Killers as Psychopathic Sexual Sadists." Law and Order Magazine, 43, 1995.

Geberth, V.J. Practical Homicide Investigation: Tactics, Procedures, and Forensic Techniques. 3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 1996.

Geberth, V.J. "Anatomy of Lust Murder." Law and Order Magazine, 46(5), May, 1998.

Geberth, V.J. Sex-Related Homicide and Death Investigation: Practical and Clinical Perspectives. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 2003.

Geberth, V.J and R. Turco, M.D. "Antisocial Personality Disorder, Sexual Sadism, Malignant Narcissism, and Serial Murder." Journal of Forensic Sciences, 42(1), January, 1997.

Hare, R.D. Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of Psychopaths among Us. New York: Pocket Books, 1993.

Hazelwood, R.R. and A.W. Burgess. Practical Aspects of Rape Investigation: A Multidisciplinary Approach. 3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 2001.

Holmes, R.M. "Profiles in Terror: The Serial Murderer." Federal Probation, 4, 29–34, 1985.

Holmes, R.M. and J. De Burger. Serial Murder. Beverly Hill, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. 1988. Hickey, E. Serial Murderers and Their Victims. Monterey, CA: Brooks–Cole/Wadsworth, 1991.

Keppel, R.D. The Riverman: Ted Bundy and I Hunt for the Green River Killer. Revised and updated. New York: Pocket Books, 1995 and 2005.

Keppel, R.D, and W.J. Birns. The Psychology of Serial Killer Investigations: The Grisly Business Unit. New York: Academic Press, 2003.

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Lunde, D.T. and J. Morgan. The Die Song: A Journey into the Mind of a Mass Murderer. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1980.

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McCord, J. "The Psychopath and Moral Development." In W.S. Laufer and J.M. Day (Eds.), Personality Theory, Moral Development, and Criminal Behavior. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1983.

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Money, J. Lovemaps: Clinical Concepts of Sexual/Erotic Health and Pathology, Paraphilia, and Gender Transposition in Childhood, Adolescence, and Maturity. New York: Irvington Publishers, Inc., 1986.

O'Brien, D. Two of a Kind — The Hillside Stranglers. New York: Signet, 1985.

Peck, M.S., M.D. People of the Lie: The Hope for Healing Human Evil. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983.

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Ressler, R.K. and T. Shachtman. Whoever Fights Monsters. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992.

Ressler, R.K., A.W. Burgess, and J.E. Douglas. Sexual Homicide: Patterns and Motives. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1988.

Ressler, R.K., A.W. Burgess, J.E. Douglas, et al. "Crime Scene and Profile Characteristics of Organized and Disorganized Murderers." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 54, 1985.

Ressler, R.K., A.W. Burgess, J.E. Douglas, C.R. Hartman, and R.B. D'Agostino. "Sexual Killers and Their Victims: Identifying Patterns through Crime Scene Analysis." Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, 288–308, 1986.

Rule, A. Lust Killer. New York: Signet Books, 1983

Schreiber, F.R. The Shoemaker — Anatomy of a Psychotic. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983.

U.S. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics Selected Findings. "Domestic Violence." November, 1994.